sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  90            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  91        ),
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 339        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 348    }
 349
 350    STAR_MAPPING = {
 351        "except": "EXCEPT",
 352        "replace": "REPLACE",
 353    }
 354
 355    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 356        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 357        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 358        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 359        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 360        "DAYS": "DAY",
 361        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 362        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 363        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 364        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 365    }
 366
 367    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 368        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 369        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 370        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 371        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 372        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 373            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 374            if e.args.get("windows")
 375            else ""
 376        ),
 377    }
 378
 379    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 380
 381    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 382
 383    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 384    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 385
 386    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 387        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 388        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 392        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 394        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 399        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 400        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 407        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 408        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 409        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 410        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 412        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 414        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 417        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 422        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 426        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 428        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 434        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 447        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 448        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 461        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463    }
 464
 465    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 466    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 467
 468    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 469    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 470        exp.Create,
 471        exp.Delete,
 472        exp.Drop,
 473        exp.From,
 474        exp.Insert,
 475        exp.Join,
 476        exp.Select,
 477        exp.Union,
 478        exp.Update,
 479        exp.Where,
 480        exp.With,
 481    )
 482
 483    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 484    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 485        exp.Binary,
 486        exp.Union,
 487    )
 488
 489    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 490    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 491        exp.Column,
 492        exp.Literal,
 493        exp.Neg,
 494        exp.Paren,
 495    )
 496
 497    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 498        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 499        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 500        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 501        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 502    }
 503
 504    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 505    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 506
 507    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 508
 509    __slots__ = (
 510        "pretty",
 511        "identify",
 512        "normalize",
 513        "pad",
 514        "_indent",
 515        "normalize_functions",
 516        "unsupported_level",
 517        "max_unsupported",
 518        "leading_comma",
 519        "max_text_width",
 520        "comments",
 521        "dialect",
 522        "unsupported_messages",
 523        "_escaped_quote_end",
 524        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 525    )
 526
 527    def __init__(
 528        self,
 529        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 530        identify: str | bool = False,
 531        normalize: bool = False,
 532        pad: int = 2,
 533        indent: int = 2,
 534        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 535        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 536        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 537        leading_comma: bool = False,
 538        max_text_width: int = 80,
 539        comments: bool = True,
 540        dialect: DialectType = None,
 541    ):
 542        import sqlglot
 543        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 544
 545        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 546        self.identify = identify
 547        self.normalize = normalize
 548        self.pad = pad
 549        self._indent = indent
 550        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 551        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 552        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 553        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 554        self.comments = comments
 555        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 556
 557        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 558        self.normalize_functions = (
 559            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 560        )
 561
 562        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 563        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 564            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 565        )
 566        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 567            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 568        )
 569
 570    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 571        """
 572        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 573
 574        Args:
 575            expression: The syntax tree.
 576            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 577                it is safer to copy.
 578
 579        Returns:
 580            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 581        """
 582        if copy:
 583            expression = expression.copy()
 584
 585        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 586
 587        self.unsupported_messages = []
 588        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 589
 590        if self.pretty:
 591            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 592
 593        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 594            return sql
 595
 596        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 597            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 598                logger.warning(msg)
 599        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 600            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 601
 602        return sql
 603
 604    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 605        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 606        if (
 607            not expression.parent
 608            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 609            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 610        ):
 611            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 612
 613            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 614
 615        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 616            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 617
 618            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 619
 620        return expression
 621
 622    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 623        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 624            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 625        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 626
 627    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 628        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 629
 630    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 631        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 632
 633    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 634        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 635        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 636        return comment
 637
 638    def maybe_comment(
 639        self,
 640        sql: str,
 641        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 642        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 643    ) -> str:
 644        comments = (
 645            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 646            if self.comments
 647            else None
 648        )
 649
 650        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 651            return sql
 652
 653        comments_sql = " ".join(
 654            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 655        )
 656
 657        if not comments_sql:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 661            return (
 662                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 663                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 664                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 665            )
 666
 667        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 668
 669    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 670        this_sql = self.indent(
 671            (
 672                self.sql(expression)
 673                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 674                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 675            ),
 676            level=1,
 677            pad=0,
 678        )
 679        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 680
 681    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 682        original = self.identify
 683        self.identify = False
 684        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 685        self.identify = original
 686        return result
 687
 688    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 689        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 690            return name.upper()
 691        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 692            return name.lower()
 693        return name
 694
 695    def indent(
 696        self,
 697        sql: str,
 698        level: int = 0,
 699        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 700        skip_first: bool = False,
 701        skip_last: bool = False,
 702    ) -> str:
 703        if not self.pretty:
 704            return sql
 705
 706        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 707        lines = sql.split("\n")
 708
 709        return "\n".join(
 710            (
 711                line
 712                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 713                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 714            )
 715            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 716        )
 717
 718    def sql(
 719        self,
 720        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 721        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 722        comment: bool = True,
 723    ) -> str:
 724        if not expression:
 725            return ""
 726
 727        if isinstance(expression, str):
 728            return expression
 729
 730        if key:
 731            value = expression.args.get(key)
 732            if value:
 733                return self.sql(value)
 734            return ""
 735
 736        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 737
 738        if callable(transform):
 739            sql = transform(self, expression)
 740        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 741            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 742
 743            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 744                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 745            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 746                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 747            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 748                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 749            else:
 750                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 751        else:
 752            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 753
 754        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 755
 756    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 757        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 759        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 760
 761    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 762        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 763        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        options = expression.args.get("options")
 765        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 766        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 767        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 768        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 769        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 770
 771    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 772        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 773            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 774        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 775        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 776
 777    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 778        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 779
 780        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 781            join_mark = ""
 782            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 783
 784        column = ".".join(
 785            self.sql(part)
 786            for part in (
 787                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 788                expression.args.get("db"),
 789                expression.args.get("table"),
 790                expression.args.get("this"),
 791            )
 792            if part
 793        )
 794
 795        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 796
 797    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 800        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 801        return f"{position}{this}"
 802
 803    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 804        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 805        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 806        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 807        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 808        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 809        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 811        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 812
 813        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 814            kind = ""
 815
 816        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 817
 818    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 821        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 822
 823    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 826            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 827        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 828            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 829        else:
 830            persisted = ""
 831        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 832
 833    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 834        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 835
 836    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 837        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 838            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 839        else:
 840            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 841
 842        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 843
 844    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 845        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 846    ) -> str:
 847        this = ""
 848        if expression.this is not None:
 849            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 850            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 851
 852        start = expression.args.get("start")
 853        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 854        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 855        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 856        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 857        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 858        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 859        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 860        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 861        cycle_sql = ""
 862
 863        if cycle is not None:
 864            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 865            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 866
 867        sequence_opts = ""
 868        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 869            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 870            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 871
 872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 873        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 874
 875        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 876
 877    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 878        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 879    ) -> str:
 880        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 881        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 882        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 883
 884    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 885        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 886    ) -> str:
 887        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 888
 889    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 890        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 891
 892    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 894
 895    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 896        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 897        if desc is not None:
 898            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 899        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 900
 901    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 904        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 905        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 906        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 907        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 908        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 909
 910    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 911        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 912
 913    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 915        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 916        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 917
 918        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 919
 920        properties_sql = ""
 921        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 922            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 923        ):
 924            properties_sql = self.sql(
 925                exp.Properties(
 926                    expressions=[
 927                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 928                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 929                    ]
 930                )
 931            )
 932
 933        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 934        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 935
 936        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 937        if expression_sql:
 938            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 939
 940            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 941                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 942                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 943                        exp.Properties(
 944                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 945                        ),
 946                        wrapped=False,
 947                    )
 948                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 949                else:
 950                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 951
 952        postindex_props_sql = ""
 953        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 954            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 955                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 956                wrapped=False,
 957                prefix=" ",
 958            )
 959
 960        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 961        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 962        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 963
 964        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 965        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 966
 967        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 968        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 969            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 970                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 971                sep=" ",
 972                prefix=" ",
 973                wrapped=False,
 974            )
 975
 976        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 977
 978        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 979        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 980            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 981                exp.Properties(
 982                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 983                ),
 984                sep=" ",
 985                prefix=" ",
 986                wrapped=False,
 987            )
 988
 989        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 990        no_schema_binding = (
 991            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 992        )
 993
 994        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 995        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 996
 997        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 998        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 999
1000    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1001        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1002        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1003        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1004        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1005        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1006        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1007        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1008        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1009        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1010        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1011
1012        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1013        if cache is None:
1014            cache_str = ""
1015        elif cache is True:
1016            cache_str = " CACHE"
1017        else:
1018            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1019
1020        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1021        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1022
1023        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1024
1025    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1028        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1029        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1030
1031    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1032        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1033        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1034
1035    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1036        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1037        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1038
1039    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1040        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1041        if with_:
1042            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1043        return sql
1044
1045    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1046        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1047        recursive = (
1048            "RECURSIVE "
1049            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1050            else ""
1051        )
1052
1053        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1054
1055    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1056        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1057
1058        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1059        if materialized is False:
1060            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1061        elif materialized:
1062            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1063
1064        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1065
1066    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1067        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1068        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1069        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1070
1071        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1072            columns = ""
1073            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1074
1075        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1076            alias = "_t"
1077
1078        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1079
1080    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1082        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1083            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1084        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1085
1086    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1089            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1090        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1091
1092    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1095            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1096        return this
1097
1098    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1100        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1101
1102        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1103            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1104            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1105
1106        if escape:
1107            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1108        else:
1109            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1110
1111        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1112        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1113
1114    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1115        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1116        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1117
1118    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1121        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1122        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1123
1124    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1125        type_value = expression.this
1126
1127        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1128            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1129        else:
1130            type_sql = (
1131                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1132                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1133                else type_value
1134            )
1135
1136        nested = ""
1137        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1138        values = ""
1139
1140        if interior:
1141            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1142                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1143                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1144                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1145                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1146                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1147            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1148                nested = f" {interior}"
1149            else:
1150                nested = f"({interior})"
1151
1152        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1153        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1154            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1155            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1156        ):
1157            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1158
1159        return type_sql
1160
1161    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1162        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1163        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1164        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1165        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1166
1167    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1169        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1170        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1171        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1172        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1173        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1174        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1175        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1176        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1177        if self.RETURNING_END:
1178            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1179        else:
1180            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1181        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1182
1183    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1186        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1187        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1188        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1189        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1190        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1191        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1192        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1193        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1194        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1195
1196    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1197        return self.set_operations(expression)
1198
1199    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1200        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1201
1202    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1203        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1204        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1205        count = expression.args.get("count")
1206        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1207        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1208            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1209        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1210        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1211
1212    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1213        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1214            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1216            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1217
1218        agg = expression.this
1219        agg_arg = agg.this
1220        cond = expression.expression.this
1221        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1222        return self.sql(agg)
1223
1224    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1225        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1226            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1227            return ""
1228
1229        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1230
1231    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1232        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1233        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1234        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1235        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1236        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1237        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1238        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1239        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1240        if include:
1241            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1242        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1243        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1244        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1245        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1246
1247        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1248
1249    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1250        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1251        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1252        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1253        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1255        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1256        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1257
1258        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1259
1260        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1261        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1262
1263    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1264        text = expression.name
1265        lower = text.lower()
1266        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1267        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1268        if (
1269            expression.quoted
1270            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1271            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1272            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1273        ):
1274            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1275        return text
1276
1277    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1278        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1279        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1280        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1281        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1282        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1283
1284    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1285        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1286        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1287
1288    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1289        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1290
1291    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1292        root_properties = []
1293        with_properties = []
1294
1295        for p in expression.expressions:
1296            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1297            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1298                with_properties.append(p)
1299            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1300                root_properties.append(p)
1301
1302        return self.root_properties(
1303            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1304        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1305
1306    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1307        if properties.expressions:
1308            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1309        return ""
1310
1311    def properties(
1312        self,
1313        properties: exp.Properties,
1314        prefix: str = "",
1315        sep: str = ", ",
1316        suffix: str = "",
1317        wrapped: bool = True,
1318    ) -> str:
1319        if properties.expressions:
1320            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1321            if expressions:
1322                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1323                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1324        return ""
1325
1326    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1327        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1328
1329    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1330        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1331        for p in properties.expressions:
1332            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1333            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1334                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1335            else:
1336                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1337
1338        return properties_locs
1339
1340    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1341        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1342            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1343        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1344
1345    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1346        property_cls = expression.__class__
1347        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1348            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1349
1350        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1351        if not property_name:
1352            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1353
1354        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1355
1356    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1357        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1358            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1359            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1360
1361            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1362            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1363                like = f"({like})"
1364
1365            return like
1366
1367        if expression.expressions:
1368            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1369
1370        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1371        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1372
1373    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1374        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1375        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1376        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1377
1378    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1379        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1380        local = expression.args.get("local")
1381        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1382        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1383        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1384        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1385        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1386
1387    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1388        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1389        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1390        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1391
1392    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1393        if expression.args.get("default"):
1394            property = "DEFAULT"
1395        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1396            property = "ON"
1397        else:
1398            property = "OFF"
1399        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1400
1401    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1402        if expression.args.get("no"):
1403            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1404        if expression.args.get("default"):
1405            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1406
1407        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1408        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1409
1410    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1411        default = expression.args.get("default")
1412        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1413        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1414        if default or minimum or maximum:
1415            if default:
1416                prop = "DEFAULT"
1417            elif minimum:
1418                prop = "MINIMUM"
1419            else:
1420                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1421            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1422        units = expression.args.get("units")
1423        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1424        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1425
1426    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1427        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1428        always = expression.args.get("always")
1429        default = expression.args.get("default")
1430        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1431        never = expression.args.get("never")
1432
1433        if autotemp is not None:
1434            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1435        elif always:
1436            prop = "ALWAYS"
1437        elif default:
1438            prop = "DEFAULT"
1439        elif manual:
1440            prop = "MANUAL"
1441        elif never:
1442            prop = "NEVER"
1443        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1444
1445    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1446        no = expression.args.get("no")
1447        no = " NO" if no else ""
1448        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1449        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1450        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1451        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1452        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1453
1454    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1455        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1456            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1457        if expression.this:
1458            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1459            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1460            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1461
1462        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1463        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1464        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1465
1466    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468
1469        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1470        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1471            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1472        else:
1473            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1474
1475        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1476
1477    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1478        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1479        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1480        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1481        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1482        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1483        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1484        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1485
1486    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1487        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1488        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1489        statistics_sql = ""
1490        if statistics is not None:
1491            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1492        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1493
1494    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1495        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1496
1497        if expression.this:
1498            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1499            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1500
1501            if expression.expression:
1502                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1503                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1504
1505            sql = f"{sql})"
1506
1507        return f"{sql})"
1508
1509    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1510        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1511        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1512
1513        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1514            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1515        else:
1516            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1517
1518        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1519        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1520        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1521        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1522        if is_function:
1523            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1524        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1525
1526        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1527        partition_sql = (
1528            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1529        )
1530        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1531        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1532        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1533        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1534        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1535        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1536        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1537
1538        if self.RETURNING_END:
1539            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1540        else:
1541            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1542
1543        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1544        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1545
1546    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1547        return self.set_operations(expression)
1548
1549    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1550        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1551
1552    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1554
1555    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1557        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1559        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1560        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1561
1562    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1563        return expression.name
1564
1565    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1566        return expression.name
1567
1568    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1569        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1570
1571        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1572        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1573
1574        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1575        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1576        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1577
1578        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1579        if expressions:
1580            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1581            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1582
1583        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1584
1585    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1586        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1587
1588    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1589        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1590        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1591        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1592        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1593        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1594        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1595        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1596        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1597        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1598        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1599        null = expression.args.get("null")
1600        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1601        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1602
1603    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1604        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1605
1606    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1607        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1608        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1609        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1610        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1611
1612    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1615        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1616        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1617
1618    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1619        return ".".join(
1620            self.sql(part)
1621            for part in (
1622                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1623                expression.args.get("db"),
1624                expression.args.get("this"),
1625            )
1626            if part is not None
1627        )
1628
1629    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1630        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1631        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1632        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1633        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1634        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1635        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1636        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1637        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1638        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1639        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1640        joins = self.indent(
1641            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1642        )
1643        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1644
1645        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1646        if file_format:
1647            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1648            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1649            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1650
1651        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1652        if ordinality:
1653            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1654            alias = ""
1655
1656        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1657        if when:
1658            table = f"{table} {when}"
1659
1660        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1661
1662    def tablesample_sql(
1663        self,
1664        expression: exp.TableSample,
1665        sep: str = " AS ",
1666        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1667    ) -> str:
1668        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1669            table = expression.this.copy()
1670            table.set("alias", None)
1671            this = self.sql(table)
1672            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1673        else:
1674            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1675            alias = ""
1676
1677        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1678        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1679        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1680        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1681        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1682        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1683        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1684        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1685        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1686
1687        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1688        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1689            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1690
1691        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1692        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1693            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1694
1695        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1696        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1697            expr = f"({expr})"
1698
1699        return (
1700            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1701        )
1702
1703    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1705
1706        if expression.this:
1707            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708            if not expressions:
1709                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1710
1711            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1712            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1713            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1714            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1715            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1716
1717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1718        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1719        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1720        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1721        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1722        if include_nulls is not None:
1723            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1724        else:
1725            nulls = ""
1726        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1727
1728    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1729        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1730        kind = expression.text("kind")
1731        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1733
1734    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1735        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1736
1737    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1741        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1742        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1743        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1744        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1745        if self.RETURNING_END:
1746            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1747        else:
1748            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1749        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1750        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1751
1752    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1753        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1754
1755        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1756        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1757            args = self.expressions(expression)
1758            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1759            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1760            values = (
1761                f"({values})"
1762                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1763                else values
1764            )
1765            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1766
1767        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1768        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1769        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1770
1771        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1772
1773        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1774            row = tup.expressions
1775
1776            if i == 0 and column_names:
1777                row = [
1778                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1779                ]
1780
1781            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1782
1783        if self.pretty:
1784            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1785            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1786            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1787            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1788            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1789
1790        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1791        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1792        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1793
1794    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1795        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1796
1797    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1798        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1799        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1800        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1801
1802    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1803        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1804
1805    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1806        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1807
1808        if expression.args.get("all"):
1809            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1810
1811        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1812        grouping_sets = (
1813            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1814        )
1815
1816        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1817        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1818            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1819        else:
1820            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1821            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1822
1823        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1824        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1825            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1826        else:
1827            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1828            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1829
1830        groupings = csv(
1831            grouping_sets,
1832            cube_sql,
1833            rollup_sql,
1834            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1835            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1836        )
1837
1838        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1839            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1840
1841        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1842
1843    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1844        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1845        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1846
1847    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1848        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1849        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1850        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1851        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1852        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1853        return start + connect
1854
1855    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1856        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1857
1858    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1859        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1860            side = None
1861        else:
1862            side = expression.side
1863
1864        op_sql = " ".join(
1865            op
1866            for op in (
1867                expression.method,
1868                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1869                side,
1870                expression.kind,
1871                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1872            )
1873            if op
1874        )
1875        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1876        using = expression.args.get("using")
1877
1878        if not on_sql and using:
1879            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1880
1881        this = expression.this
1882        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1883
1884        if on_sql:
1885            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1886            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1887            if using:
1888                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1889            else:
1890                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1891        elif not op_sql:
1892            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1893                return f" {this_sql}"
1894
1895            return f", {this_sql}"
1896
1897        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1898        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1899
1900    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1901        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1902        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1903        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1904
1905    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1906        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1907
1908        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1909        if cross_apply is True:
1910            op = "INNER JOIN "
1911        elif cross_apply is False:
1912            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1913        else:
1914            op = ""
1915
1916        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1917
1918    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1920
1921        if expression.args.get("view"):
1922            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1923            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1924            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1925            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1926            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1927            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1928
1929        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1930        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1931        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1932
1933    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1935
1936        args = [
1937            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1938            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1939            if e
1940        ]
1941
1942        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1943        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1944        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1945        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1946
1947        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1948
1949    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        value = expression.expression
1952        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1953        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1954        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1955        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1956
1957    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1959        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1962        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1963        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1964        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1965        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1966
1967    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1968        expressions = (
1969            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1970        )
1971        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1972        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1973
1974    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1975        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1976
1977    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1978        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1979            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1980            return ""
1981
1982        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1983        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1985        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1986
1987        if wait is not None:
1988            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1989                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1990            else:
1991                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1992
1993        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1994
1995    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1996        text = expression.this or ""
1997        if expression.is_string:
1998            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1999        return text
2000
2001    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
2002        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2003        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
2004            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
2005        elif self.pretty:
2006            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2007        return text
2008
2009    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2010        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2011        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2012        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2013        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2014        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2015        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2016        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2017        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2018        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2019        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2020        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2021
2022    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2023        return "NULL"
2024
2025    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2026        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2027
2028    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2031        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2032        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2033        interpolated_values = [
2034            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2035            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2036        ]
2037        interpolate = (
2038            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2039        )
2040        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2041
2042    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2043        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2044        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2045        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2046        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2047        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2048        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2049        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2050
2051    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2052        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2053
2054    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2055        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2056
2057    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2058        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2059
2060    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2061        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2062        asc = not desc
2063
2064        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2065        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2066        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2067        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2068        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2069
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2071
2072        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2073        nulls_sort_change = ""
2074        if nulls_first and (
2075            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2076        ):
2077            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2078        elif (
2079            nulls_last
2080            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2081            and not nulls_are_last
2082        ):
2083            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2084
2085        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2086        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2087            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2088            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2089                self.unsupported(
2090                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2091                )
2092                nulls_sort_change = ""
2093            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2094                if expression.this.is_int:
2095                    self.unsupported(
2096                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2097                    )
2098                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2099                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2100                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2101                nulls_sort_change = ""
2102
2103        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2104        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2105
2106        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2107
2108    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2109        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2110        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2111        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2112        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2113        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2114        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2115        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2116        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2117        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2118        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2119        definition_sqls = [
2120            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2121            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2122        ]
2123        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2124        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2125        body = "".join(
2126            (
2127                partition,
2128                order,
2129                measures,
2130                rows,
2131                after,
2132                pattern,
2133                define,
2134            )
2135        )
2136        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2137        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2138        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2139
2140    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2141        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2142
2143        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2144            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2145        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2146            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2147
2148        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2149        if options:
2150            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2151
2152        return csv(
2153            *sqls,
2154            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2155            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2156            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2157            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2158            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2159            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2160            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2161            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2162            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2163            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2164            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2165            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2166            options,
2167            sep="",
2168        )
2169
2170    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2171        return ""
2172
2173    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2174        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2175    ) -> t.List[str]:
2176        return [
2177            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2178            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2179        ]
2180
2181    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2182        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2183        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2184        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2185
2186    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2187        into = expression.args.get("into")
2188        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2189            into.pop()
2190
2191        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2192        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2193        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2194        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2195
2196        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2197        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2198            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2199            limit.pop()
2200        else:
2201            top = ""
2202
2203        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2204
2205        if kind:
2206            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2207                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2208            else:
2209                if kind == "STRUCT":
2210                    expressions = self.expressions(
2211                        sqls=[
2212                            self.sql(
2213                                exp.Struct(
2214                                    expressions=[
2215                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2216                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2217                                        else e
2218                                        for e in expression.expressions
2219                                    ]
2220                                )
2221                            )
2222                        ]
2223                    )
2224                kind = ""
2225
2226        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2227        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2228        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2229        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2230        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2231            expression,
2232            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2233            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2234            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2235        )
2236
2237        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2238
2239        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2240            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2241                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2242            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2243                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2244            else:
2245                table_kind = ""
2246            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2247
2248        return sql
2249
2250    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2252        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2253        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2254
2255    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2256        if expression.expressions:
2257            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2258        return ""
2259
2260    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2261        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2262        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2263        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2264        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2265        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2266
2267    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2270
2271    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2273        kind = expression.text("kind")
2274        if kind:
2275            kind = f"{kind}."
2276        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2277
2278    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2279        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2280
2281    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2282        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2283        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2284
2285        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2286        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2287
2288        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2289        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2290
2291    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2292        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2293        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2294
2295    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2296        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2297        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2298
2299        while stack:
2300            node = stack.pop()
2301
2302            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2303                stack.append(node.expression)
2304                stack.append(
2305                    self.maybe_comment(
2306                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2307                        expression=node.this,
2308                        comments=node.comments,
2309                    )
2310                )
2311                stack.append(node.this)
2312            else:
2313                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2314
2315        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2316        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2317        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2318
2319    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2320        return self.set_operations(expression)
2321
2322    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2323        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2324        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2325        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2326        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2327
2328    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2329        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2330
2331        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2332        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2333
2334        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2335            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2336                alias.append("columns", offset)
2337
2338        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2339            columns = alias.columns
2340            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2341        else:
2342            alias = self.sql(alias)
2343
2344        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2345        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2346            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2347        else:
2348            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2349                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2350            elif offset:
2351                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2352            else:
2353                suffix = alias
2354
2355        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2356
2357    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2358        return ""
2359
2360    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2361        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2362        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2363
2364    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2366        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2367        order = expression.args.get("order")
2368        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2369        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2370        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2371        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2372
2373        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2374
2375        first = expression.args.get("first")
2376        if first is None:
2377            first = ""
2378        else:
2379            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2380
2381        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2382            return f"{this} {alias}"
2383
2384        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2385        return f"{this} ({args})"
2386
2387    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2388        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2389        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2390
2391    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2392        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2393        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2394        end = (
2395            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2396            or "CURRENT ROW"
2397        )
2398        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2399
2400    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2402        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2403        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2404
2405    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2408        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2409        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2410
2411    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2412        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2413            expression.this,
2414            expression.expressions,
2415            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2416        )
2417        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2418        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2419
2420    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2421        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2422
2423    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2426            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2427                this = self.wrap(this)
2428            return f"ANY{this}"
2429        return f"ANY {this}"
2430
2431    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2432        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2433
2434    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2437
2438        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2439            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2440            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2441
2442        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2443
2444        if default:
2445            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2446
2447        statements.append("END")
2448
2449        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2450            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2451
2452        return " ".join(statements)
2453
2454    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2457        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2458
2459    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2460        order = expression.args.get("order")
2461        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2462        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2463
2464    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2466        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2467        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2468
2469    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2470        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2471
2472        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2473            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2474        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2475            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2476        else:
2477            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2478
2479    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2480        args = expression.expressions
2481        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2482            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2483
2484        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2485            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2486
2487        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2488            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2489
2490        return args
2491
2492    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2493        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2494
2495        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2496        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2497            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2498
2499        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2500
2501    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2502        return self.func(
2503            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2504        )
2505
2506    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2507        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2508        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2509
2510    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2512        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2513        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2514        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2515        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2516        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2517        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2518        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2519
2520    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2521        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2522        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2523        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2524        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2525
2526    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2527        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2528
2529    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2530        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2531        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2532        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2533
2534    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2535        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2536
2537    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2538        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2539        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2540
2541    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2542        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2543            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2544            if not callable(transform):
2545                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2546                return ""
2547
2548            return transform(self, expression)
2549
2550        if isinstance(expression, int):
2551            return str(expression)
2552
2553        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2554            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2555            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2556        else:
2557            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2558            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2559
2560        return escaped
2561
2562    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2564
2565    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2566        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2567        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2568
2569        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2570        if unique_keys is not None:
2571            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2572        else:
2573            unique_keys = ""
2574
2575        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2576        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2577        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2578        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2579
2580        return self.func(
2581            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2582            *expression.expressions,
2583            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2584        )
2585
2586    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2587        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2588
2589    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2590        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2591        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2592        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2593        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2594        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2595        return self.func(
2596            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2597        )
2598
2599    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2602        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2603        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2604        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2605        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2606        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2607        return self.func(
2608            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2609            this,
2610            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2611        )
2612
2613    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2614        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2615        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2616        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2617
2618        if nested_schema:
2619            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2620
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2623        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2624        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2625
2626    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2627        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2628
2629    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2631        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2632        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2633        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2634        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2635        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2636        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2637        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2638        return self.func(
2639            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2640        )
2641
2642    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2645        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2646        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2647        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2648        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2649
2650    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2653        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2654        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2655        with_ = (
2656            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2657            if expressions
2658            else ""
2659        )
2660        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2661
2662    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2663        query = expression.args.get("query")
2664        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2665        field = expression.args.get("field")
2666        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2667
2668        if query:
2669            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2670        elif unnest:
2671            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2672        elif field:
2673            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2674        else:
2675            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2676
2677        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2678
2679    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2680        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2681
2682    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2683        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2684        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2685            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2686        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2687
2688        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2689            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2690            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2691
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        if this:
2694            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2695            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2696
2697        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2698
2699    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2700        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2701
2702    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2705        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2706        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2707        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2708        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2709
2710    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2711        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2712
2713    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2714        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2715        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2716
2717    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2718        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2719        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2721        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2722
2723    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2724        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2725
2726    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2728        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2729        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2730
2731    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2732        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2733        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2734
2735        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2736            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2737        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2738            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2739
2740        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2741
2742    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2743        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2744
2745    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2747        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2748        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2749
2750    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2753        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2754
2755    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2757        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2758        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2759
2760    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2761        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2762
2763    def and_sql(
2764        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2765    ) -> str:
2766        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2767
2768    def or_sql(
2769        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2770    ) -> str:
2771        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2772
2773    def xor_sql(
2774        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2775    ) -> str:
2776        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2777
2778    def connector_sql(
2779        self,
2780        expression: exp.Connector,
2781        op: str,
2782        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2783    ) -> str:
2784        if stack is not None:
2785            if expression.expressions:
2786                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2787            else:
2788                stack.append(expression.right)
2789                if expression.comments:
2790                    for comment in expression.comments:
2791                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2792                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2793            return op
2794
2795        stack = [expression]
2796        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2797        ops = set()
2798
2799        while stack:
2800            node = stack.pop()
2801            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2802                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2803            else:
2804                sql = self.sql(node)
2805                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2806                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2807                else:
2808                    sqls.append(sql)
2809
2810        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2811        return sep.join(sqls)
2812
2813    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2814        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2815
2816    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2817        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2818
2819    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2820        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2821
2822    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2823        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2824
2825    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2826        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2827
2828    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2829        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2830
2831    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2832        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2833        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2834        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2835        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2836        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2837        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2838        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2839
2840    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2841        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2842        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2843
2844    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2845        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2846
2847    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2848        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2849            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2850        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2851
2852    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2853        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2854
2855    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2857        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2858        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2859        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2860        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2861
2862    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2865        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2866        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2867        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2868        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2869        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2870        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2871        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2872
2873    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2874        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2875        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2876        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2877        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2878
2879        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2880            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2881
2882        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2883
2884    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2885        return "BEGIN"
2886
2887    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2888        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2889        if chain is not None:
2890            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2891
2892        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2893
2894    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2895        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2896        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2897        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2898
2899    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901
2902        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2903        if dtype:
2904            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2905            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2906            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2907            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2908            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2909
2910        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2911        if default:
2912            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2913
2914        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2915        if comment:
2916            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2917
2918        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2919            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2920
2921        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2922
2923    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2924        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2925            # Remove db from tables
2926            expression = expression.transform(
2927                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2928            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2931
2932    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2933        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2934        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2936        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2937
2938    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2939        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2940
2941        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2942            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2943        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2944            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2945        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2946            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2947        else:
2948            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2949
2950        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2951        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2952        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2953        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2954        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2955
2956    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2957        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2958            return self.expressions(
2959                expression,
2960                key="actions",
2961                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2962            )
2963        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2964
2965    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2966        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2967        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2968        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2969
2970    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2971        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2972
2973    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2974        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2975
2976        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2977            case = exp.case()
2978            for arg in expression.expressions:
2979                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2980            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2981
2982        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2983
2984        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2985        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2986        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2987
2988    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2989        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2990
2991    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2992        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2993
2994    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2995        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2997        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2998        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
2999
3000    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3001        return self.sql(
3002            exp.Cast(
3003                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3004                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3005            )
3006        )
3007
3008    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3009        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3010            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3011        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3012
3013    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3014        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3015
3016        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3017            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3018
3019        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3020            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3021                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3022
3023        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3024            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3025                return self.sql(
3026                    exp.cast(
3027                        l / r,
3028                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3029                    )
3030                )
3031
3032        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3033
3034    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3035        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3036
3037    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3039
3040    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3041        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3042
3043    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3044        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3045
3046    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3047        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3048
3049    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3050        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3051
3052    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3053        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3054
3055    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3056        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3057
3058    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3059        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3060
3061    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3062        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3063
3064    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3065        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3066
3067    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3068        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3069            return self.sql(
3070                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3071            )
3072        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3073
3074    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3075        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3076
3077    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3078        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3079
3080    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3081        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3082
3083    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3085
3086    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3088
3089    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3090        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3091
3092    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3094
3095    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3097
3098    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3100
3101    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3103
3104    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3106
3107    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3109
3110    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3111        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3112
3113    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3114        this = expression.this
3115        expr = expression.expression
3116
3117        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3118            this, expr = expr, this
3119        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3120            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3121                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3122
3123            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3124
3125        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3126
3127    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3128        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3129        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3131        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3132        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3133
3134    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3135        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3137
3138    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3139        args = []
3140
3141        for key in expression.arg_types:
3142            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3143
3144            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3145                for value in arg_value:
3146                    args.append(value)
3147            elif arg_value is not None:
3148                args.append(arg_value)
3149
3150        if self.normalize_functions:
3151            name = expression.sql_name()
3152        else:
3153            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3154
3155        return self.func(name, *args)
3156
3157    def func(
3158        self,
3159        name: str,
3160        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3161        prefix: str = "(",
3162        suffix: str = ")",
3163    ) -> str:
3164        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3165
3166    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3167        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3168        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3169            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3170        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3171
3172    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3173        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3174
3175    def format_time(
3176        self,
3177        expression: exp.Expression,
3178        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3179        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3180    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3181        return format_time(
3182            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3183            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3184            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3185        )
3186
3187    def expressions(
3188        self,
3189        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3190        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3191        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3192        flat: bool = False,
3193        indent: bool = True,
3194        skip_first: bool = False,
3195        sep: str = ", ",
3196        prefix: str = "",
3197    ) -> str:
3198        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3199
3200        if not expressions:
3201            return ""
3202
3203        if flat:
3204            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3205
3206        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3207
3208        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3209        if self.pretty:
3210            if self.leading_comma:
3211                pad = " " * len(sep)
3212            else:
3213                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3214
3215        result_sqls = []
3216        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3217            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3218            if not sql:
3219                continue
3220
3221            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3222
3223            if self.pretty:
3224                if self.leading_comma:
3225                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3226                else:
3227                    result_sqls.append(
3228                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3229                    )
3230            else:
3231                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3232
3233        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3234        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3235
3236    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3237        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3238        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3239        if flat:
3240            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3241        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3242
3243    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3244        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3245        if not property_name:
3246            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3247        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3248
3249    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3250        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3251
3252    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3253        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3254
3255    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3257        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3258        expressions = (
3259            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3260        )
3261        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3262
3263    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3265        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3266        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3267
3268    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3270
3271    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3272        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3273        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3274        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3275        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3276
3277        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3278        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3279            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3280            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3281                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3282        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3283            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3284                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3285            else:
3286                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3287        else:
3288            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3289        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3290
3291    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3292        table = expression.this
3293        table_alias = ""
3294
3295        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3296        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3297            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3298            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3299
3300        this = self.sql(table)
3301        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3302        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3303        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3304
3305        return self.prepend_ctes(
3306            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3307        )
3308
3309    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3310        if expression.args.get("format"):
3311            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3312
3313        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3314
3315    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3316        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3317            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3318            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3319
3320        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3321        if not fmt:
3322            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3323            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3324
3325        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3326
3327    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3329        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3330        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3331        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3332        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3333
3334    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3336        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3337        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3338        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3339
3340    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3341        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3342
3343    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3344        return ""
3345
3346    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3347        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3348        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3349        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3350        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3351        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3352
3353    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3355        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3356
3357        if having:
3358            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3359
3360        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3361
3362    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3363        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3364        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3365        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3366        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3367        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3368        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3369        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3370        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3371        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3372        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3373        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3374        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3375        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3376
3377    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3378        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3379        if key_block_size:
3380            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3381
3382        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3383        if using:
3384            return f"USING {using}"
3385
3386        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3387        if parser:
3388            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3389
3390        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3391        if comment:
3392            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3393
3394        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3395        if visible is not None:
3396            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3397
3398        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3399        if engine_attr:
3400            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3401
3402        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3403        if secondary_engine_attr:
3404            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3405
3406        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3407        return ""
3408
3409    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3410        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3411        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3412
3413    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3415        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3417        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3418        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3419        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3420        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3421        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3422        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3423        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3424        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3425
3426    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3427        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3428            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3429
3430        case = exp.Case().when(
3431            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3432            expression.args["true"],
3433            copy=False,
3434        )
3435        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3436        if else_cond:
3437            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3438
3439        return self.sql(case)
3440
3441    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3443        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3444        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3445        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3446        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3447        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3448
3449    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3450        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3451
3452    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3453        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3454
3455    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3456        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3457        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3458        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3459        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3460        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3461        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3462
3463    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3465        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3466        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3467
3468    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3470        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3471        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3472
3473    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3474        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3475
3476    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3477        arg = expression.this
3478        if not arg.type:
3479            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3480
3481            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3482
3483        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3484            return self.sql(arg)
3485
3486        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3487        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3488
3489    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3490        this = expression.this
3491        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3492            return self.sql(this)
3493
3494        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3495
3496    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3497        this = expression.this
3498        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3499            return self.sql(this)
3500
3501        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3502
3503    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3504        this = expression.this
3505        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3506
3507        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3508            return self.sql(
3509                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3510            )
3511
3512        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3513            return self.sql(this)
3514
3515        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3516
3517    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3518        return self.sql(
3519            exp.func(
3520                "DATEDIFF",
3521                expression.this,
3522                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3523                "day",
3524            )
3525        )
3526
3527    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3528        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3529            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3530
3531        unit = expression.text("unit")
3532        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3533            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3534
3535        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3536
3537    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3538        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3539            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3540            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3541            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3542            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3543
3544        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3545
3546        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3547        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3548            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3549
3550        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3551
3552    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3553        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3554        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3555
3556    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3557        expression.set(
3558            "expressions",
3559            [
3560                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3561                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3562                else e
3563                for e in expression.expressions
3564            ],
3565        )
3566
3567        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3568
3569    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3570        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3571        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3572
3573        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3574
3575    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3576        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3577        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3578
3579        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3580
3581        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3582        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3583
3584        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3585        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3586
3587        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3588        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3589
3590        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3591        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3592
3593        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3594
3595    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3596    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3597    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3598        to = expression.this
3599        value = expression.expression
3600        style = expression.args.get("style")
3601        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3602        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3603
3604        if not to or not value:
3605            return ""
3606
3607        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3608        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3609            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3610
3611        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3612        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3613
3614        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3615        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3616            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3617
3618            style_value = style.name
3619            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3620            if not converted_style:
3621                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3622
3623            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3624
3625            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3626                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3627            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3628                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3629            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3630                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3631            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3632                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3633
3634        if not transformed:
3635            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3636
3637        return self.sql(transformed)
3638
3639    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3640        this = expression.this
3641        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3642            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3643            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3644
3645        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3646            return f".{this}"
3647
3648        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3649        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3650
3651    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3652        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3653        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3654
3655    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3656        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3657            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3658
3659            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3660
3661        return expression
3662
3663    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3664        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3665            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3666            mods = sorted(
3667                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3668                key=lambda x: 0
3669                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3670                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3671            )
3672
3673            if mods:
3674                mod = mods[0]
3675                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3676                this.meta["inline"] = True
3677                mod.this.replace(this)
3678                return self.sql(expression.this)
3679
3680            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3681
3682            if agg_func:
3683                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3684
3685        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"